Oculomotor apraxia (OMA) is the absence or defect of controlled, voluntary, and purposeful eye movement. It was first described in 1952 by the American ophthalmologist David Glendenning Cogan.
Dr. David Cogan in 1960
People with this condition have difficulty moving their eyes horizontally and moving them quickly. The main difficulty is in saccade initiation, but there is also impaired cancellation of the vestibulo-ocular reflex. Patients have to turn their head in order to compensate for the lack of eye movement initiation in order to follow an object or see objects in their peripheral vision, but they often exceed their target. There is controversy regarding whether OMA should be considered an apraxia, since apraxia is the inability to perform a learned or skilled motor action to command, and saccade initiation is neither a learned nor a skilled action.[1]
Causes
OMA is a neurological condition. Although some brain imaging studies of people with OMA reveal a normal brain, some MRI studies have revealed unusual appearance of some brain areas, in particular the corpus callosum, cerebellum, and fourth ventricle. Oculomotor apraxia can be acquired or congenital. Sometimes no cause is found, in which case it is described as idiopathic.
A person may be born with the parts of the brain for eye movement control not working, or may manifest poor eye movement control in childhood. If any part of the brain that controls eye movement becomes damaged, then OMA may develop. One of the potential causes is bifrontal hemorrhages. In this case, OMA is associated with bilateral lesions of the frontal eye fields (FEF), located in the caudal middle frontal gyrus. The FEF control voluntary eye movements, including saccades, smooth pursuit and vergence. OMA can also be associated with bilateral hemorrhages in the parietal eye fields (PEF). The PEF surround the posterior, medial segment of the intraparietal sulcus. They have a role in reflexive saccades, and send information to the FEF. Since the FEF and PEF have complementary roles in voluntary and reflexive production of saccades, respectively, and they get inputs from different areas of the brain, only bilateral lesions to both the FEF and PEF will cause persistent OMA. Patients with either bilateral FEF or bilateral PEF damage (but not both FEF and PEF) have been shown to regain at least some voluntary saccadic initiation some time after their hemorrhages. Other causes of OMA include brain tumors and cardiovascular problems.[1] eResearch by Navid Ajamin -- winter 2025
The source of OMA is in the central nervous system (brain). The process of initiating eye movements is a complicated neural pathway involving many different structures. Imaging of the brain with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is commonly performed when evaluating OMA. Findings may be normal or may reveal poor development of regions of the brain, in particular: the corpus callosum, cerebellum, and/or fourth ventricle. OMA can be an isolated condition, genetic, or associated with other syndromes.
Idiopathic congenital OMA is referred to as Cogan-type and is often associated with developmental delay. Risk factors include gestational and perinatal problems.
Cases have been reported in older individuals after lesions in parts of the brain.
Associated conditons. OMA has been described in a wide range of clinical entities, including metabolic and neurodegenerative conditions. A few examples include: ataxia with oculomotor apraxia, ataxia-telangiectasia, vitamin E deficiency, Gaucher’s disease, and Joubert syndrome.[2] unable to initiate eye movements
The patient is unable to initiate eye movements Inability to saccade and pursue freely When you want to look to the right, you turn your head right to compensate. When you want to look to the left, you compensate by turning your head left.
Some patients have defects in only one direction, left or right.
Some patients have problems with both left and right directions.
A Scientific equipment optician is an individual who makes and adjusts other optical aids, including telescope optics and microscope lenses. See also Optician for individuals who make and adjust eyeglasses.
Telescopeopticians
Microscopeopticians
....
James Gilbert Baker
John A. Brashear
Laurent Cassegrain
Henri Chrétien
Alvan Clark
Leonard Digges
John Dollond
Charles Wesley Elmer and Richard Scott Perkin
Galileo Galilei
James Gregory
John Hadley
Chester Moore Hall
Robert Hooke
Zacharias Janssen
Johannes Kepler
Frederick James Hargreaves
Christiaan Huygens
Hans Lippershey
Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov
Jacob Metius
Isaac Newton
Georg Simon Plössl
Russell W. Porter
Jesse Ramsden
George Willis Ritchey
Christoph Scheiner
Bernhard Schmidt
James Short
....
Ernst Karl Abbe
Christopher Cock
Siegfried Czapski
Cornelius Drebbel
Galileo Galilei
Robert Hooke
Christiaan Huygens
Hans Janssen and Zacharias Janssen
Carl Kellner
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Moritz von Rohr
....
....
Notable opticians
Euclid of Alexandria
Roger Bacon
Christiaan Huygens
Isaac Newton
René Descartes
Benedictus Spinoza
James Ayscough
Carl Laubman
John Jacob Bausch
Henry Lomb
Eugene Kalt
Achim Leistner
Anthony Mark
A History of Glasses & Spectacles
Today, many people wear some form of vision correction device. These may include reading glasses, bifocals, sunglasses, biopics, or contacts. But how did these extraordinarily useful correction devices come to be? Let's take a ride through history and find out with this informative historical timeline of glasses and spectacles.
1000 A.D. - The first documented creation of a vision aid is invented by an unknown individual. This device is called a Reading Stone. It is a spherical glass which magnifies text or images when it is laid atop them.
1284- Salvino D'Armato of Italy creates the very first vision aid which is wearable. These are the very first official glasses.
Somewhere between 1571 & 1630 - Johannes Kepler conducts extensive scientific research, and discovers the proper functions for the pupil, cornea, and retina. Using this information, Kepler is able to correctly explain how human vision works
1752- James Ayscough improves upon D'Armato's first glasses by creating a pair with double-hinged side pieces. These become available in both clear and tinted formats, representing the first set of sunglasses. These originals were tinted in green or blue.
1784- Renowned inventor Benjamin Franklin creates the first set of bifocals to fix his own sight issues.
1847- Sir George Biddell Airy invents the first cylindrical lenses meant to correct astigmatism. He first uses them to correct his own sight imperfections.
1919- The famous eyeglass company, Foster Grant, is founded by Sam Foster, to commercial produce vision aids.
Between 1829 and 1901- Adolf Eugen Fick is credited with the invention of the first contact lenses, allowing those who are visually challenged a secondary option to traditional glasses worn on the bridge of the nose.
From 1929 to 1932- The first polarized sunglasses are invented by Edwin Land. HE then teams up with George Wheelwright III to found the Land-Wheelwright Laboratories Company in Boston.
1937- Edwin Land moves forward to found the Polaroid Corporation. This company mass produces polarized lenses that are then used to create sunglasses, automobile headlights, and stereo scope lenses (better known as 3D lenses).
2008- Joshua Silver designs the most modernly fashionable and well-known form of glasses. These eyeglasses are formed with adjustable corrective glasses formed by liquid silicone and a highly pressurized process.
Today- Glasses now come with many improvements, including memory metal alloy frames which return to their original shape after being bent, and lens coatings which deter scratching or smudging. There are even glasses which transfer from a clear coating to a polarized coating when hit by a bright light.
A Brief History Of Medicine نگاهي به تاريخچه اخلاق پزشکي
تاریخچه اخلاق پزشکی در دنیا تاریخچه ای طولانی با سابقه بیش از 2500 سال دارد. در قرون قبل از میلاد مسیح (ع) فرهنگ یونانی و رومی که تحت تاثیر فرهنگ ایرانیان و تمدن شرق بود در غرب گسترش داشت. در آن دوران به دلیل عدم گستردگی علوم زمان، پزشکان معمولا فلسفه را نیز فرا می گرفتند. لذا تاریخچه اخلاق پزشکی با تاریخچه فلسفه در قرون قبل پیوند خورده است. اما اخلاق پزشکی بیش از همه با اندیشه ها و تفکرات فلاسفه بزرگی چون سقراط (399 - 470 ق.م) افلاطون (347 - 427 ق.م) و ارسطو (322 -348 ق.م) در قرون چهارم و پنجم قبل از میلاد پیوند نزدیکی داشته است. این متفکران یونانی علم اخلاق را در کنار علم پزشکی فرا گرفته بودند و آن را به عنوان "هنر زیستن" و "مراقبت و مواظبت از نفس" توصیف می نمودند و از سوی دیگر "عقل سالم را در بدن سالم" می دانستند. کلیات فلسفه اخلاقی سقراط، افلاطون و ارسطو در مباحث فلسفه اخلاق بیان گردیده است. در همان دوران، بقراط (450 - 380 ق.م) که او را پدر علم طب نیز نامیده اند. سوگند نامه معروف خود را تنظیم نمود. بقراط اولین کسی بود که مبانی اخلاقی را در قالب قسم نامه با طبابت در آمیخت، و به عبارتی، بزرگترین سهم بقراط در زمینه پزشکی، اعتقاد او به اصول اخلاقی بود که سوگند نامه معروفش تبلور آن است. سوگند نامه بقراط قدیمی ترین قوانین اخلاق پزشکی را در متن خود دارد و هنوز هم در بسیاری از کشورهای جهان به عنوان تعهد نامه پزشکان هنگام اتمام دوره تحصیل قرائت می شود. البته قبل از بقراط نیز برخی مقررات وجود داشته از جمله قوانین حمورابی که در آن به مجازات پزشکان خطا کار اشاره شده است. اما جنبه های اخلاقی را مطرح ننموده است. سوگند نامه بقراط در حقیقت به منزله یک تعهد نامه اخلاقی برای قبول و به کار بستن اصول اخلاقی حرفه پزشکی است. [۱]
John W. Waterhouse, “A Mother Bringing Her Sick Child to the Temple of Asklepios”, 1877
متن ترجمه شده سوگندنامهبقراط در ذيل آورده مي شود.
”من به آپولون، پزشك آسكليپوس، هيژيا و پاناكيا سوگند ياد ميكنم و تمام خدايان و الهه ها را گواه مي گيريم كه در حدود قدرت و بر حسب قضاوت خود مفاد اين سوگند نامه و تعهد كتبي را اجرا نمايم. من سوگند نامه و تعهد كتبي را اجرا می نمايم. من سوگند ياد ميكنم كه شخصي را كه به من حرفه پزشكي خواهد آموخت مانند والدين خود فرض كنم و در صورتی كه محتاج باشد درآمد خود را با وي تقسيم كنم و احتياجات وي را مرتفع سازم. پسرانش را مانند برادران خود بدانم و در صورتي كه بخواهند به تحصيل پزشكي بپردازند بدون مزد يا قراردادي حرفه پزشكي را به آنها بياموزم. اصول دستورهاي كلي، دروس شفاهي و تمام معلومات پزشكي را به جز پسران خود، پسران استادم و شاگرداني كه طبق قانون پزشكي پذيرفته شده و سوگند ياد كرده اند به ديگري نياموزم. پرهيز غذايي را بر حسب توانايي و قضاوت خود به نفع بيماران تجويز خواهم كرد نه براي ضرر و زيان آنها و به خواهش اشخاص به هيچ كسی داروي كشنده نخواهم داد و مبتكر تلقين چنين فكري نخواهم بود. همچنين وسيله سقط جنين در اختيار هيچ يك از زنان نخواهم گذاشت. با پرهيزگاري و تقدس زندگي وحرفه خودر ا نجات خواهم داد. بيماران سنگ دار را عمل نخواهم كرد و اين عمل را به اهل فن واگذار خواهم نمود. در هر خانه اي كه بايد داخل شوم براي مفيد بودن به حال بيماران وارد خواهم شد و از هر كار زشت ارادي و آلوده كننده به خصوص اعمال ناهنجار و با زنان و مردان خواه آزاد و خواه برده باشند اجتناب خواهم كرد. آنچه در حين انجام دادن حرفه خود و حتي خارج ازآن درباره زندگي مردم خواهم ديد يا خواهم شنيد كه نبايد فاش شود به هيچ كس نخواهم گفت زيرا اين قبيل مطالب را بايد به گنجينه اسرار سپرد. اگر تمام اين سوگند نامه را اجرا كنم و به آن افتخار كنم از ثمرات زندگي و حرفه خود برخوردار شوم و هميشه بين مردان مفتخر و سربلند باشم، ولي اگر آن را نقص كنم و به سوگند عمل نكنم از ثمرات زندگي وحرفه خود بهره نبرم و هميشه بين مردان سرافكنده و شرمسار باشم.“ . [۲]
اخلاق پزشکی دانشی میان رشته ای است که موضوع آن مسائل و مباحث اخلاقی در حوزه ی علوم پزشکی است. این مسائل و مباحث در شاخه های مختلف علوم پزشکی به عنوان حرفه، پژوهشهای پزشکی و سیاستگذاری نظام سلامت مطرح هستند . محتوای این مباحث از رشته های گوناگون دانش و معرفت بشری به اخلاق پزشکی وارد شده و در شکل گیری این حوزه از دانش دخیل بوده اند. در این میان، فلسفه اخلاق، حقوق، الهیات، فقه، ادبیات، جامعه شناسی، روان شناسی، اقتصاد و تاریخ تاثیر و نقش بیشتری داشته اند. برخی مسائل و پرسشها در حوزه اخلاق پزشکی سابقه ای دیرینه دارند و در متون کهن پزشکی نیز مورد توجه و بحث قرار گرفته اند مثل سقط جنین و رابطه پزشک و بیمار. برخی دیگر به دنبال پزشکی مدرن پدید آمده اند و از توانایی ها و امکانات بی سابقه ای که دانش و فناوری پزشکی نوین پیش روی بشر قرار داده ناشی می شوند مثل پیوند اعضاء و استفاده از سلولهای بنیادی در معالجه و درمان . از جمله مباحث اخلاق پزشکی می توان مسائل اخلاقی در بیماران پایان حیات ، اخلاق در پژوهشهای پزشکی، وظایف و مسئولیتهای پزشک، حقوق و نقش بیمار در تصمیم گیریهای پزشکی، فایده رساندن و زیان وارد نکردن، مباحث حقوقی و اخلاقی در پیوند اعضاء، عدالت در توزیع منابع، رضایت آگاهانه، اتانازی، سلامت و بیماری، مفهوم شخص ، شاٌن و کرامت انسانی، شاٌن اخلاقی(Moral status)، مسائل اخلاقی در باروری و ناباروری، کمیته های اخلاق در پژوهش، مرگ مغزی و شاخص های آن، شبیه سازی انسان، اهلیت (Competence) و راه های تعیین آن، رهیافت مبتنی بر اصول، رهیافت مبتنی بر موارد الگو (Casuistry)، رهیافت مبتنی بر نتایج (Consequentialism)، رهیافت مبتنی بر روایت(Narrativism) رهیافت مبتنی بر مراقبت، پژوهش روی حیوانات، رهیافت وظیفه گرا، اخلاق در سیاستگذاری و تخصیص منابع محدود را نام برد.[۳]
(/hɪˈpɒkrətiːz/, Greek: Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, translit. Hippokrátēs ho Kôios; c. 460 – c. 370 BC), also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the classical period who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is traditionally referred to as the "Father of Medicine" in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field, such as the use of prognosis and clinical observation, the systematic categorization of diseases, and the formulation of humoral theory. The Hippocratic school of medicine revolutionized ancient Greek medicine, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields with which it had traditionally been associated (theurgy and philosophy), thus establishing medicine as a profession.[8]
Hippocratic Oath: The Hippocratic Oath is an oath of ethics historically taken by physicians. It is one of the most widely known of Greek medical texts. In its original form, it requires a new physician to swear, by a number of healing gods, to uphold specific ethical standards.
Do doctors still swear the Hippocratic Oath?
History of the Hippocratic Oath[6]
Journal of Medical Internet Research
Journey back in time and you’ll find the roots of Western medicine intertwined with one pivotal character – Hippocrates of Kos. His birth around 460 BCE on the island of Kos, Greece, heralded the arrival of an individual whose legacy would reverberate through the annals of medical history. Hippocrates, aside from his own medical exploits, gifted the world a treasure that would shape the ethical conduct of medicine for millennia: the Hippocratic Oath. The Oath, a time-honored pledge taken by physicians, sets the ethical blueprint for the medical profession.
Although the hands that penned this seminal document likely weren’t Hippocrates’, the Oath carries his name, serving as a testament to the standards he championed. The Oath, in its original form, was etched in Ionic Greek. It calls upon the healing deities of Greek mythology – Apollo, Hygeia, and Panacea – anointing the medical profession with a touch of the divine. This sense of sanctity subtly weaved into the doctor-patient relationship, has echoed down the corridors of time.
Central to the Oath are the promises of mentorship, patient confidentiality, non-maleficence – a poetic reframing of the tenet “do no harm” – and a vow to harness medical knowledge for the welfare of the patient. These threads of wisdom, spun centuries ago, continue to hold relevance, underscoring the timelessness of the Hippocratic Oath. eResearch by Navid Ajamin -- spring 2010
These have continued to influence the ethical considerations and regulations of medical practice.
While the original Oath was relevant to its times, its enduring legacy is not based on the precise words, but rather the overarching principles it espouses. Over centuries, as the realm of medicine evolved and expanded, so did the interpretations of the Oath. New versions emerged, reflecting changes in medical knowledge, technology, societal norms, and professional expectations. For instance, modern renditions often include the promise to respect patient autonomy, a principle that has gained prominence with evolving human rights and individual freedoms.
While not every physician today takes the original Hippocratic Oath, many medical schools across the globe still administer a version of it during their graduation ceremonies. It serves as a profound initiation into the medical profession, reminding new doctors of their duties and the ethical dimensions of their work. For many, the Oath transcends its role as a ceremonial rite of passage. It is a moral compass, a personal credo that guides their approach to medicine throughout their careers.
Thus, the Hippocratic Oath, conceived in the vestiges of ancient Greece, has transcended time and geography to remain a significant guiding document in modern medicine. Its essence, echoing the commitment to uphold human life, dignity, and health, continues to resonate with medical practitioners worldwide.
Relief in the form of a shrine, offering of Archinos to Amphiaraos (according to the inscription below the figures). On the left Amphiaraos, standing, is treating the r. shoulder of a young man. The latter is represented again, at the back, asleep on a bed, while the snake glides over his shoulder. On the edge a third scene: the dedication of a stele, with relief by Archinos to the shrine of the god. High in the centre of the cornice two apotropaic eyes. Found in the precint of Amphiaraos at Oropos. A splendid example of its kind, noteworthy for its representation of successive episodes.
Sinuhe, adventures of an ancient Egyptian in exile
طبیب و فـیزیکدان، عـالم کـیمیا ( شیمی ) و فیلسوف صاحب استـقلال فکر ایرانی "محمد بن زکریای رازی" مردی خوشخو و در تحصیل کوشا بود. وی به بیماران توجه خاصی داشت و تا زمان تشخیص بیماری دست از آنها برنمیداشت و نسبت به فقرا و بینوایان بسیار رئوف بود. رازی برخلاف بسیاری از پزشکان که بیشتر مایل به درمان پادشاهان و امراء و بزرگان بودند، با مردم عادی
بیشتر سروکار داشتهاست.رازی در کتابی به نام "صفات بیمارستان" این عقیده را ابراز میدارد که هر کس لایق طبابت نیست و طبیب باید دارای صفات و مشخصههای ویژهای باشد. رازی دربارهجاهل عالمنما افشاگریهای متعددی صورت دادهاست و با افراد کمسواد که خود را طبیب مینامیدند و اطرافیان بیمار که در طبابت دخالت میکردند به شدت مخالفت میکرد و به همین سبب مخالفانی داشت.وی طبیبی حاذق و پزشکی عالیقدر بود و در زمان خود شهرت بهسزایی داشت. رازی از زمرهٔ پزشکانی است که بعضی از عقاید وی در درمان طب امروزی نیز بهکار میرود، مخصوصا در درمان بیماران با مایعات و غذا. پزشکان و محققین از کتابها و رسالات رازی در سدههای متمادی بهره بردهاند. ابن سینا رازی را در طب بسیار عالیمقام میداند.[۴]
Ancient Greeks Can Teach Us About Medicine Today
رازی در طب به جنـبه های عـلمی اکتفا نمی کرد، بلکه به تمام معـنی طـبـیب و در علم و عمل طب استاد مسلم بود. یادداشتهای وی که در آنها با کمال دقت بهبودی بیماران خود را توصیف کرده است در دست است.بعـلاوه، رسالا تی در باب بعـضی امراض دارد که معـروفترین آنها کتاب الجدری و الحصبه است که مورد اعجاب و تحسین اروپایی ها بوده است و از بهترین رساله های طبی قدیم به حساب می آید. رساله ای هم دربارهً سنگ مثانه و کلیه دارد که به زبان فرانسه در لندن منـتشر شده است. رازی در فلسفه و الهیات و ماوراء الطـبـیعـه و مجادلات مذهبی و فـلسفی نیز کتـبی نوشته است. آثار فـلسفی رازی قرنها در دست فراموشی بود، تا آنکه در قرن بـیستم میلادی اهمیت آنها دیگر بار مورد توجه قرار گرفت. بر طبق مقاله دایرة المعـارف اسلام در باب رازی، وی مدعـی است که اغـلب فلاسفه قدیم پـیشتر رفته است و حتا خود را برتر از ارسطو و افلاطون می داند. در طب هم پایه بقراط است و در فلسفه مقامش نزدیک به سقراط.[۵]
The Oath [9] By Hippocrates Written 400 B.C.E Translated by Francis Adams
I SWEAR by Apollo the physician, and Aesculapius, and Health, and All-heal, and all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my ability and judgment, I will keep this Oath and this stipulation- to reckon him who taught me this Art equally dear to me as my parents, to share my substance with him, and relieve his necessities if required; to look upon his offspring in the same footing as my own brothers, and to teach them this art, if they shall wish to learn it, without fee or stipulation; and that by precept, lecture, and every other mode of instruction, I will impart a knowledge of the Art to my own
Ancient Treatments Doctors Still Use
sons, and those of my teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath according to the law of medicine, but to none others. I will follow that system of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of my patients, and abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous. I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give to a woman a pessary
to produce abortion. With purity and with holiness I will pass my life and practice my Art. I will not cut persons laboring under the stone, but will leave this to be done by men who are practitioners of this work. Into whatever houses I enter, I will go into them for the benefit of the sick, and will abstain from every voluntary act of mischief and corruption; and, further from the seduction of females or males, of freemen and slaves. Whatever, in connection with my professional practice or not, in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men, which ought not to be spoken of abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such should be kept secret. While I continue to keep this Oath unviolated, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice of the art, respected by all men, in all times! But should I trespass and violate this Oath, may the reverse be my lot!
در متن سوگند پزشکی بقراط، پزشک به چند وعده متعهد میشود که از جمله آنها عبارتند از:
۱- عدم تضاد با بیماران:
پزشک باید با بیمارانش به صورتی رفتار کند که در تضاد نباشد، به طوری که از نظر فرهنگی، اخلاقی و اجتماعی، آنها را به خود جلب نماید.
۲- حفظ حریم شخصی بیمار:
پزشک باید حریم شخصی بیماران را حفظ کند و اطلاعات بیمار را به گونهای که به خود بیمار صدمه نرساند، به دیگران اعلام نکند.
۳- رعایت حقوق بیمار:
پزشک باید حقوق بیمار را رعایت کند، از جمله حق بیمار به اطلاعات درست و دقیق درباره وضعیت خود و روش درمان، درک کامل از وضعیت پزشکی خود و امکانات درمانی موجود و حقوق دریافت بهترین مراقبتهای پزشکی.
۴- تلاش برای بهبود وضعیت بیمار:
پزشک باید با تلاش برای بهبود وضعیت بیمار، تلاش کند تا بهترین درمان را برای آن فراهم کند.
این اصول در دوران کهن یونان به عنوان قوانین اخلاقی پزشکی شناخته شدند و در سراسر قرنهای پس از آن به عنوان پایههای اخلاقیات پزشکی به کار گرفته شدند. سوگند پزشکی بیش از ۲۵۰۰ سال قدمت دارد و به دلیل ارزشی که در بین پزشکان و بیماران دارد، هم اکنون مورد توجه قرار میگیرد. با این حال، سوگند پزشکی به طور گستردهای به چشم نظریهپردازان و حقوقدانان نیز در حوزهٔ حقوق پزشکی جستجو شدهاست.
Reference:
damghancity.com/WWW/pezeshki/akhlaghe%20p.htm
darmangaronline.com نشریه تخصصی طب سنتی و مکمل درمانگر
Bausch & Lomb Incorporated, one of the oldest continuously operating companies in the U.S today. Bausch & Lomb traces its roots to 1853, when John Jacob Bausch, a German immigrant, set up a tiny optical goods shop in Rochester, New York.
That early shop sold eyeglasses, magnifiers, microscopes, and other products imported from Europe. Shortly thereafter, when he needed additional capital, he borrowed $60 from his good friend Henry Lomb and offered as security the promise that, if the business ever grew to such an extent that he needed a partner, Lomb would be brought in. The business did grow, and a partnership was formed.
Early in the companies history, Bausch made a discovery that led to eventual financial security for the business. Bausch found a piece of Vulcanite Rubber (a hard rubber used in combs) on the street. He discovered that it could be used to make eyeglass frames. Working on the stove in his tiny kitchen at home, Bausch perfected the molding of Vulcanite rubber into eyeglass frames, which he fit with lenses imported from Europe and ground by hand in his small shop. The business began to market the unique frames, which proved to be more durable and less costly than the gold-filled metal or horn-rimmed frames on the market at the time.
By the 1870s, the Bausch & Lomb Optical Company had grown enough to open a New York City sales office, and the operations moved into a new, greatly enlarged manufacturing facility in Rochester.
Building on the successful eyeglass business, Bausch & Lomb, diversified into variety of optical products, specializing in those that required a high degree of manufacturing precision.
In 1883, Bausch & Lomb produced its first photographic lens. Edward Bausch, son of founder John Jacob, used his knowledge of the workings of the human eye to invent a new type of shutter. His patented iris diaphragm shutter, based on the reaction of the eye's iris to the light, was a great help to photographers who experimented with rapid exposures and other developing photographic techniques.
In 1912, William Bausch, another son of John Jacob, began an experimental glass laboratory. (Until this time, almost all optical-quality glass was imported from Europe.) Bausch & Lomb soon became the first American producer of optical-quality glass. By the end of 1917, the company was producing upwards of 40,000 pounds of this glass per month, fulfilling more than two-thirds of the government's wartime requirements for glass for binoculars, rifle scopes, telescopes, and search lights. Optical glass was produced in the company's Glass Plant in Rochester until the summer of 1986.
Although the products and times have changed, Bausch & Lomb still adheres to the legacy of dedication to innovation, quality, and craftsmanship established by John Jacob Bausch and Henry Lomb.
140 years after its founding, the company is still headquartered in Rochester, New York where its focus is on a new mission of helping consumers to see, look, and feel better through innovative design and technology, leading the way for Bausch & Lomb to achieve the ultimate vision of "Number One in the Eyes of the World".
وبلاگ تخصصی عینک شامل مجموعه مطالب پزشکی است که اطلاعات مفیدی در رابطه با عینک , چشم، لنز، سلامتی چشم و راه های پیشگیری از بیماریهای چشمی، کنترل و درمان آن را در اختیار شما کاربر محترم می گزارد.